The basic function of buildings is to provide structurally sound, environmentally controlled spaces to house and protect occupants and their contents.
A building is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place, such as a house or factory.
In this article, we will highlight some of the factors that determine how buildings are constructed. A brief overview of building functions and performance leads to a discussion of environmental factors and sustainable building.
This is followed by a description of the general principles of construction, concluding with some comments on legislation, sources of information, and making informed choices.
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Table of Contents
Function of buildings and their performance
Buildings are constructed, altered, upgraded, restored, or demolished for a variety of reasons. Whether the aim is simply to provide more space or to make a financial gain from speculative development, all building projects need to fulfil a function and meet set performance criteria, no matter how fundamental or sophisticated the client’s requirements may be.
Buildings, regardless of their function, will have an impact (positive or negative) on the environment throughout their entire life cycle.
The environmental impact will be influenced by many factors, such as the responsible sourcing and manufacturing of environmentally sustainable materials and building products; the decisions taken during the construction process; the actions of owners and occupants through a long period of use, reuse, alteration, and repair; and through to deconstruction at the end of the building’s useful life.
At this ‘final’ stage, many materials and components can be recovered and reused or recycled into new building products, helping reduce the amount of material sent to landfills and improve the environmental impact of buildings.
The environmental performance of buildings is an important consideration for all building projects, be they new builds or work on existing structures.
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1. Function of buildings
The primary function of a building is to provide shelter from the weather and to serve as a container for living, working, and playing. The principal functional requirements include:
- Shelter
- Security
- Safety (and comfort)
- Ease of use and operation (functionality)
- Ease of maintenance, periodic repair, and replacement/upgrading
- Adaptability and durability
- Ability to reuse and recycle materials and components at a future date
The overall goal is to achieve these functions in an economical, safe, and timely manner using the most appropriate available resources, with minimal negative impact on the environment.
2. Performance of buildings
Building performance is an attribute of a building that reflects how well it carries out its functions. It may also relate to the performance of the building construction process.
The building’s performance will be determined by several interrelated factors set by the client, legislation, and society. Clients’ performance requirements will vary from project to project. However, the main considerations are likely to be:
- Space, determined by a figure for floor area and/or volume (and related to anticipated
- use)
- Thermal and acoustic performance (the quality of the indoor climate)
- Design life and service life of the building and specific building elements
- Cost of construction, the cost in use, and the cost of demolition/deconstruction and recycling
- Quality of the finished building (functionality and durability)
- The appearance of the finished building
- Environmental impact
Other specific performance criteria will relate to the use of the building, for example, the provision of special work surfaces for catering establishments.
Legislative performance requirements are set out in building codes and regulations. Specific performance requirements, such as the thermal insulation of walls and the fire protection of doors, must be met or exceeded in the proposed construction method.
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3. Quality of buildings
Function and performance will influence the building’s quality. The quality of the completed building, as well as the process that brings it about, will also be determined by the quality of thought behind the design process, the quality of the materials and products specified, and the quality of the work undertaken.
There are several different quality issues:
(1) Quality control is a managerial tool that ensures both work and products conform to predetermined performance specifications. Getting the performance specification right is an important step in getting the required quality, be it for an individual component or the whole building.
(2) Quality assurance is a managerial system that ensures quality service to predetermined
parameters. The ethos of total quality management aims at continual improvement and greater integration by focusing on client satisfaction. Manufacturers, contractors, and professional consultants use this.
(3) The quality of the finished artefact will be determined by several variables constant for all projects, namely, the:
- Interaction and characteristics of the participants engaged in design, manufacture, and assembly
- The Effectiveness of the Briefing Process
- Effectiveness of the design decision-making process and the resultant information
- Also, the Effectiveness of the assembly process
- Effectiveness of communications
- Time constraints
- Financial constraints
- How users perceive their built environment
The required quality of materials and workmanship will be set out in the written specification. Good quality materials and good quality work tend to carry a higher initial cost than lower quality alternatives; however, the overall feel of the building and its long-term durability may be considerably improved: we tend to get what we pay for.
When making decisions about the materials and components to be used, it is important to consider the whole-of-life cost of the materials, not just their initial capital cost and the cost of labour to assemble them.
4. Economics
The building site and the structures constructed on the land are economic assets. In addition to the cost of the land, there are three interrelated costs to consider.
The first is the initial cost, the cost of designing and erecting the building. This is usually the primary, and sometimes the only, concern for clients and developers.
It covers professional fees and associated costs for land acquisition and permissions, the capital costs of materials and components, and the labour costs for carrying out the work.
The second cost to consider is the cost of the building in use, i.e., the costs associated with routine maintenance and replacement, and with heating and servicing the building over its life.
These costs can be reduced through sensitive design and detailing; for example, designing a building to use zero energy and be easy to maintain will yield significant cost benefits over the longer term (not to mention environmental benefits).
All materials and components have a specified design life and should also have a specified service life. Designers and contractors need to be aware of these factors before starting work, thereby helping reduce defects and maintenance requirements.
The third cost is the cost of materials recovery at the end of the building’s life, i.e., the cost of demolition, recycling, and disposal.
All three cost areas associated with the building should be considered within a whole-life cost model, from which decisions can be made about the types of materials and components to be used and how they are to be assembled (and subsequently disassembled). This links with issues concerning maintenance, repair, renovation, and recycling.
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Environmental factors
There is extensive literature on the environmental impact of building materials, products, and components; construction activities; and the use (and misuse) of buildings throughout their lifetime. We know we must do more to respect our planet and build in ways that positively impact our environment.
From a construction perspective, consideration should be given to the methods of construction, maintenance, and repair, the structure’s future adaptability, and the recycling of materials when the building is demolished or substantially remodelled.
This is particularly important at the detailing and specification stage when materials and components are selected.
There are many ways we can improve the relationship between our artificial and natural environments. For example, detailing buildings to reduce unnecessary waste during production not only helps reduce landfill waste but also saves time and money.
Similarly, detailing and constructing a building so it can be disassembled at the end of its service life will enable precious components and materials to be recovered with minimal damage, and hence minimal waste.
1. Climate change
There continues to be considerable speculation as to the future impact of climate change. In the UK, the consensus is that the average temperature will continue to rise, as will rainfall and average wind speed.
The message from the weather forecasters is that it will be wetter, warmer, and windier. This has given rise to several concerns about the suitability of the existing building stock and the technologies employed in the erection of new buildings.
How, for example, do these predicted changes impact how we detail the external fabric of buildings? Are existing Codes, Standards, and building practices adequate?
The consensus is that we should adopt a cautious approach, although we would urge against over-detailing and over-specifying, which may be wasteful.
Some concern has been expressed about new buildings, especially homes that are built from lightweight materials, such as timber-framed, steel-framed, modular, and other lightweight construction systems.
The fear is that, with expected increases in temperatures, the internal temperature of lightweight construction may become too high during the summer, necessitating air conditioning (increased energy demand) and/or improved shading and natural ventilation.
Buildings constructed with heavy walls, small windows, and sun-shading devices (e.g., shutters, verandas) are less susceptible to temperature fluctuations.
However, there are plenty of places around the world with warmer climates than the UK, where lightweight construction is used successfully.
The answer to the problem is less about the type of construction used and more about how the building is designed to respond better to its immediate environment (e.g., verandas and shading devices).
The passive design includes selecting energy-efficient building materials, so there is very little or no need for renewable technologies.
This is sometimes referred to as ‘fabric first’. A good example is Passivhaus (Passive House), which effectively eliminates the need for space heating through a highly insulated building fabric.
Taking this concept a little further, the Activhaus (Active House) concept aims to design and construct a building that generates more energy than it uses.
Buildings constructed from straw bales and rammed earth also adopt the fabric-first philosophy to eliminate the need for space heating. Level 6 of the Code for Sustainable Homes equates to a property with no net CO2 emissions.
2. Environmental impact
There is a wide variety of approaches to building construction, and with increased attention to environmentally friendly construction, many options are available.
Some have their roots in vernacular architecture, and others in technological advancement, although most approaches combine features of both old and new construction techniques.
Strategies adopted can include, for example, the reuse of salvaged components and recycled materials from redundant buildings; designing buildings that can be disassembled with minimal damage to the components used; designing buildings to decompose after a predetermined time frame; incorporating renewable energy sources; and so on.
Care is required as many of these methods are largely untried (or the techniques have been forgotten), and it will take some time before we can know for certain how they perform in situ.
We do, however, urge all readers to consider the environmental impact of their preferred construction method by adopting a whole-life approach to the design, construction, use, and reuse/recycling of buildings.
3. Energy efficiency and environmental performance
The environmental performance of buildings has long been a cause for concern, but it is difficult for building owners to obtain reliable information.
Designers and builders must make a greater effort to provide buildings with:
- Lower running costs
- Enhanced air quality and natural daylight
- Use of low-allergy materials
- Use of environmentally friendly materials
- Water efficiency (and recycling) measures
- Ease of adaptation and alteration
- Future-proofing (easy upgrading of energy-efficient technologies)
If these (and related) factors are addressed during the conceptual and detailed design phases, the initial construction cost is likely to be similar to that of a less energy-efficient and less environmentally friendly project.
Add to this the considerable cost savings over the life of the building, and it is difficult to understand why buildings are still being constructed with such scant regard for the whole life performance of the constructed works.
Our existing building stock is a little more problematic, simply because it may be challenging to make improvements to the building fabric and services to enhance its low-carbon credentials.
With an estimated 27 million older homes needing upgrades to meet energy efficiency targets, the challenge is substantial.
General principles of construction
Whatever approach is taken to the design and erection of our buildings, several fundamental principles hold.
The building has to resist gravity and hence remain safe throughout its design life, and substantial advice is provided in regulations and standards. Every building is composed of some common elements:
- Foundations
- Floors
- Walls
- Roof
- Windows and doors
- Stairs and ramps
- Surface finishes
- Services
It is vital for the success of the building project and the use of the constructed building that an integrated approach is adopted.
It is impossible to consider the choice of, for example, a window without considering its interaction with the wall on which it is to be positioned, fixed, maintained, and eventually replaced.
It follows that the window should exhibit the same or very similar thermal and acoustic performance characteristics as the wall.
The same argument holds for all building services, which should be integrated with the building structure and fabric so that access for routine maintenance, repair, and upgrading is safe and straightforward, without causing any damage.
It is common to classify construction methods as either load-bearing or framed construction.
1. Load-bearing construction
Masonry load-bearing construction is well established in the British building sector, and despite a move towards greater prefabrication, it tends to be the preferred option for many house builders and for small commercial buildings.
There is a heavy reliance on the skills of the site workers and wet trades, e.g. bricklaying, plastering, and so on. Quality control is highly dependent on the labour used and the quality of on-site supervision.
In a typical load-bearing cavity wall construction, the main loads are transferred to the foundations via the internal load-bearing wall.
The external skin provides weather protection and aesthetic quality. Primarily, ‘wet’ construction techniques are employed.
2. Framed construction
Framed construction has a long pedigree in the UK, starting with the framed construction of low-rise buildings from timber and followed by early experiments with iron and reinforced concrete frames.
Subsequent technological developments and advances in production have resulted in three main materials being used in low-rise developments: timber, steel, and concrete.
Framed construction is better suited to prefabrication and off-site manufacturing than masonry load-bearing construction.
Dry techniques are used, and quality control is easier because the production process is repetitive and much of the work is carried out in a carefully controlled environment.
Site operations involve the proper placement and connection of individual parts in a safe and timely manner.
In a typical framed cavity wall construction, the main loads are transferred to the foundations via the structural frame.
The external skin provides weather protection and aesthetic quality. It is common practice in most of the UK to clad timber- and steel-framed buildings with brickwork; thus, from external appearances, it might be impossible to determine whether the construction is framed or load-bearing.
3. Design and constructability
The functional and performance requirements will inform the design process, from the initial concepts through to the completion of detailed designs and the production of the information (drawings, schedules, and specifications) from which the building will be constructed.
The design of the junction between different materials, i.e., the solution for how different parts are assembled, is crucial to meeting the performance and functional requirements of the overall building.
Good design and detailing will help the contractor and subcontractors to assemble the building safely and economically.
Good design and detailing, combined with good workmanship, will contribute to the building’s durability and ease of use over its life.
How materials are joined will be determined by their material properties, available shapes and sizes, the type of joint required, the construction method (e.g., framed or load-bearing), and the safe sequence of assembly (and anticipated disassembly).
Interfaces between materials and components can be quite complex and are specific to particular materials and components. In simple terms, the following methods are widely used to join separate parts, either in isolation or in combination.
Gravity. The simple placement of materials so that they remain in place due to their mass (e.g., stone on stone) or shape (e.g., interlocking roof tiles) is common, although it is often used in conjunction with an adhesive joint or a mechanical fixing.
Masonry is usually laid in mortar in load-bearing construction, and roof tiles need to be clipped in position at regular intervals.
Screws and bolts. Screws and bolts perform a similar function to each other, in joining two (or more) materials together by mechanical fixing.
Screws are widely used for joining timber, with the thread of the screw drawing the timber components together through the act of screwing one piece of the material into the other.
Bolts tend to be used for joining two pieces of metal and are (usually) placed in pre-drilled holes.
A nut is threaded onto the end of the bolt, and the bolt and nut are tightened to hold the materials together.
The advantage of screws and bolts is that they are relatively straightforward to unscrew the screw or undo the bolt with minimum damage to the materials.
Both the screw and the bolt can be reused. This is helpful for routine maintenance and inspection, as well as for recovering materials and reusing them at a later date.
Nails. Nails are driven through the first material into the second using a hammer or a nail gun, with the materials held together by friction.
This is a common method of joining two materials, although it is difficult to withdraw the nail without damaging both the materials and the nail.
Adhesives, glues, and welds. A wide variety of materials are used to bond one material to another.
These include lime and cement mortars, chemical adhesives, glues, and welds. Unless the bond is designed to be comparatively weak compared with the materials being joined, e.g., lime mortar in brickwork, it will be very difficult to disassemble the construction without damaging the materials.
Mastics. Mastics are primarily used to fill a joint. These ‘flexible’ filling materials are designed to allow movement between adjacent materials and to prevent the penetration of rain and wind through the joint. Mastic materials are usually forced into the joint.
The ease of removal of the mastic will be determined by the material properties of the mastic and the shape of the joint.
Constructability (or buildability) is an approach to building design and construction that seeks to eliminate non-productive work on site, simplify the production process, and provide opportunities for more efficient site management and safer working conditions.
Thus, designing and detailing for constructability requires an understanding of how components are manufactured off-site and how the building is to be assembled (the sequence of work packages) on-site.
The core message of constructability is greater simplicity (of joints between materials), greater standardisation (to avoid unnecessary on-site cutting and hence reduce material waste), and better communication among the designer, manufacturer, and builder.
These three principles also relate to the eventual disassembly of the building at some future date, when materials and building products will be recovered, reused, and recycled.
An ethical approach to the sustainable sourcing of all building materials and products means that those making decisions about which materials and products to specify and purchase must understand the supply chain and seek assurances about the provenance of every item.
Some of the practical considerations are:
- Timescale
- Availability of labour and materials (supply chain logistics)
- The sequence of construction and tolerances (constructability)
- Reduction of waste (materials, labour, time, and energy
- Temporary protection from the weather
- Integration of structure, fabric, and services
- Maintenance and replacement
- Disassembly and recycling strategies
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3. Prefabrication and off-site production
In recent years, the emphasis has been firmly on prefabrication and off-site production. This is, of course, only one of many approaches and is usually better suited to repeated building types than to one-off projects.
However, the range of prefabricated units is expanding, and considerable improvements in product quality and health and safety may be made through the use of prefabricated components and proprietary systems.
This has tended to move the skills away from the building site into the controlled environment of the factory.
Site operations become limited to the lifting, positioning, and fixing of components into the correct position, and emphasis is on the delivery of components to the site ‘just in time and the specification of the correct tolerances to allow operations to be conducted safely.
As technologies improve and the number of off-site manufacturers grows, the choices for designers and contractors are becoming much wider.
4. An alternative approach
Conventional construction methods rely on a plentiful supply of resources, many of which are becoming scarcer and hence more expensive.
Alternative approaches (and attitudes) to construction, in the philosophy and use of materials and energy, seek to minimise environmental impact through sensitive design and specification.
The mantra is:
- Reduce
- Reuse
- Recycle
- Revitalize
The energy expended on extraction, processing, and transporting materials to the site, as well as the total resources used during construction, should be included in the calculation of the structure’s efficiency.
Integration of resource-friendly concepts into the design and construction processes can significantly reduce the environmental impact of the constructed works.
Similarly, the occupants’ habits and environmental ideals will affect the building’s operating efficiency.
Adopting a less mechanised (and hence less conventional) approach to construction may be seen as a step in the wrong direction by some, but, for many, natural materials and labour-intensive methods provide a realistic alternative.
Primary drivers behind a non-conventional approach to construction may be one or more likely, a combination of the following factors:
- Lower initial construction costs – affordability
- Energy efficiency – low heating (and cooling) costs throughout the life of the building
- Use of local materials
- Use of local (semi-skilled) labour, community involvement, or self-build
- Cultural compatibility with the local environment
- Simplicity of design
- Easy to adapt as needs change
- Comfort
- Implementation of environmental ideals and principles
- Ease of disassembly and materials recovery at a future date
The following underlying issues need a little more explanation.
Cost of labor
Labour costs comprise a substantial part of the initial cost of most building projects. One way to mitigate labour costs is to employ a quick, efficient construction method, although this tends to carry a high cost associated with the technologies and machinery required to manufacture and erect the building.
Another approach is to engage in some form of self-build or self-help scheme, assuming that the self-builder has the time to invest in the project and has, or can readily acquire, the necessary skills to implement a quality product.
For example, straw bale construction and rammed earth structures are attractive to owner-builders (self-builders) because of the low cost of raw materials and the substantial savings in labour costs achieved by providing their own labour.
Also, innovations such as hollow polystyrene interlocking blocks (fitting together much like Lego bricks) filled with concrete to form a structural wall with low thermal conductivity are attractive to the do-it-yourself builder.
Experienced labour may, however, still be required for the foundation work, roof framing, electrical wiring, and plumbing.
Where possible, the labour should be sourced locally, thereby stimulating the local economy.
Cost of materials
Compared with manufactured materials, the initial cost of materials for some nonconventional approaches may be considerably lower, although the increased use of manual labour may well offset this saving if some or all of the labour has to be paid at the market rate.
In most cases, there will be considerable life-cycle cost benefits for the entire structure.
Similarly, by using simple construction techniques, the ease and hence cost of maintenance, repair, and replacement should also be better than more conventional approaches.
Adopting a passive design philosophy may help reduce some service provision and the need for integration; for example, passive ventilation instead of mechanical ventilation. Materials should be sourced locally, preferably from renewable resources.
Genius loci – the importance of the site
The importance of the site and of how the building is positioned on or within the ground becomes even more critical with some alternative approaches.
Many of these materials are more susceptible to moisture damage than conventional building products, and they may be considerably less durable unless competently detailed and constructed. Site sensitivity is a crucial factor in ensuring a durable and trouble-free building.
The proposed site of the building must be carefully analysed in terms of the microclimate, soil type, and the position of the water table.
Then (and only then) should a decision be made on the most appropriate materials and construction techniques to employ.
For example, some sites may be better suited to earth-sheltered construction than straw bale construction and vice versa.
In some cases, a more traditional approach may be a better option once the data gleaned from a thorough site analysis has been collected and analysed.
Readers with a strong desire to build using a particular material, for example, straw bales, must first find an appropriate site.
Regulations and approvals
Several approvals need to be in place before building work commences. The two main consents required in the UK are from the appropriate town planning authority and building control.
Specific conditions relating to town planning consent and building regulation approval will be influenced by the physical characteristics of the site and its immediate surroundings.
Planning consent
Issues concerning local town planning approval are outside the scope of this book; however, it is important to recognise that (with a few exceptions) planning approval must be applied for and granted before any construction or demolition work commences.
The legislation governing the right to develop, alter, or demolish buildings is extensive, and professional advice should be sought before applying for the necessary approvals.
The process of obtaining approval can be very time-consuming (preparing the necessary information for submission, allowing time for consultation and decisions, etc.), and conditions attached to the approval may affect the construction process (e.g., restricted working times, conditions on materials to be used, etc.).
Sometimes the application may be unsuccessful, leading to an appeal or a submission of a revised proposal.
Planning consent permits development; it does not address how the building is to be constructed safely; this is dealt with by building control.
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Making choices and sources of information
The design and construction of buildings involve making choices. Decisions have to be made about the building’s design and details, which necessitate selecting materials and components to realise the client’s design intentions and aspirations.
At the construction stage, decisions have to be made about which mechanical plant to use, how best to sequence the work to ensure operations are conducted safely and efficiently, and what to do when an unexpected problem arises.
During the life of the building, decisions will need to be made about how best to replace damaged or worn components and upgrade the building to improve its functionality and performance.
Then, at the end of the building’s useful life, decisions will need to be made about how to deconstruct the building safely and economically while also maximising the reuse of materials, products, and components.
We hope this article helped you learn the function of buildings. You may also want to see our tips on Aluminium and Copper as Building Materials, Metals for Construction, and Walls: Load-Bearing Walls and Non-Load-Bearing Walls.
FAQs
1. What are the functions of buildings?
The basic function of buildings is to provide structurally sound and environmentally controlled spaces to house and protect occupants and contents
2. What are the primary functions of the building?
The primary function of a building is to provide shelter from the weather, a container for living, working, and playing.
3. What is the building’s performance?
A building’s performance is a measure of how well it functions according to designated criteria, such as physical, social, or environmental considerations.
4. What are the common elements found in every building?
Every building is composed of the following elements:
- Foundations
- Floors
- Walls
- Roof
- Windows and doors
- Stairs and ramps
- Surface finishes
- Services
5. What are the main considerations in building performance?
In building performance, the main considerations are:
- Space, determined by a figure for floor area and/or volume (and related to anticipated use)
- Thermal and acoustic performance (the quality of the indoor climate)
- Design life and service life of the building and specific building elements
- Cost of construction, the cost in use, and the cost of demolition/deconstruction and recycling
- Quality of the finished building (functionality and durability)
- The appearance of the finished building
- Environmental impact
